Horrible, unmanly

In 15th-century Italy, guns and gunpowder were widely seen as diabolical devices (evil tools) linked to cowardice rather than bravery. They were criticized in art and literature, with figures like Ludovico Ariosto calling them foul and pestilent discoveries that undermined chivalry. However, by the early 16th century, attitudes shifted dramatically. For example, Lorenzo de’ Medici, a famous Renaissance patron, owned five portable firearms listed in his 1492 inventory. His descendant, Duke Cosimo de’ Medici, had 91 firearms in storage by 1539, showing how quickly guns became accepted in elite circles. This change reflected broader military and social transformations across Italy.

By the 16th century, Italian states lacked standing armies and relied on temporary mercenary forces. To strengthen defense, they turned to militias (citizen armies) equipped with firearms. In 1506, Florence established a militia requiring at least 10,000 men, with 1 in 10 armed with firearms. The city also stored 500 handguns (schioppetti) in its city hall, along with funds for gunpowder and ammunition. This model drew inspiration from German and Spanish traditions, where civic duty included maintaining arms. Training exercises, including monthly target practice, were introduced to improve marksmanship.

The Italian Peninsula became a battleground for conflicts between France and Spain from 1494 to 1559. Spanish arquebusiers (soldiers armed with arquebuses, long-barreled guns) played a key role in these wars. Rulers promoted shooting skills for civic and military purposes, normalizing firearms. Meanwhile, elite culture began embracing guns as status symbols. High-end firearms, like wheellock guns (self-lighting mechanisms), were decorated with mythological, biblical, or hunting scenes. These weapons were expensive and complex, making them luxury items for the wealthy.

Despite literary criticism, guns gained acceptance in elite circles. Benvenuto Cellini, a goldsmith and sculptor, described shooting pigeons as an enjoyable pastime, even developing his own gunpowder recipe. By the 1530s, firearms appeared in ceremonial gifts, such as those given to the Duke of Mantua, replacing traditional crossbows. Art also reflected this shift: Titian’s 1548 portrait of Emperor Charles V depicted him holding a wheellock gun, symbolizing its new prestige. Guns were no longer seen as unchivalrous but as tools of power and modernity.

Firearms became more accessible beyond the elite. Civilians, including farmers and hunters, acquired guns for pest control and sport. In Bologna, a cowherd named Vincenzo obtained a license to carry a gun for hunting in 1552, with restrictions on where it could be used. However, widespread gun ownership raised concerns. An anonymous writer in the late 1570s warned that every herdsman or shepherd carried a wheellock arquebus, posing a threat to public safety. By 1600, firearms accounted for a third of homicides in Bologna, though they were often used for intimidation rather than planned violence.

To encourage gun proficiency, Italian states introduced shooting contests with cash prizes. In 1518, Venice offered 32 ducats (a unit of currency) and fabric for the top archer on its naval galleys. Lucca held contests three times a year, awarding a silver cup worth 20 ducats and fabric worth 5 ducats. These events framed guns as tools for defending liberty, contrasting with earlier negative portrayals. The contests also fostered a culture where firearms were seen as practical and even honorable, not just military tools.