How to be a (Roman) man

In ancient Rome, masculinity was closely tied to power, hierarchy, and achievement, particularly in the political and military spheres.

The term virtus (from vir, meaning 'man') originally referred to 'courage in war' and was central to Roman ideals of manhood.

Being called 'effeminate' was a serious insult for Roman men, as femininity was associated with weakness or shame.

Roman masculinity was not just about physical strength; it also involved public behavior, speech, and adherence to social norms.

For example, the toga, a woolen garment worn by adult male citizens, symbolized civilian life and contrasted with military roles.

Cicero, Rome’s most famous orator, embodied these ideals, using his rhetorical skills to advance his political career and defend the republic.